Anguiano González, Minerva Deyanira, Dr. International University of La Rioja, Spain,
Galland Camacho Nuria, MA, Director of the Museum of Mexican Medicine Palace of the School of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, UNAM.
There is no more wax than that which burns
The expression "there is no more wax than what burns" refers to the acceptance of reality, particularly one that is materially evident. This saying serves as a pretext to present the work of contemporary artists who use wax as an expressive material to address current issues. Due to its malleable characteristics, wax can be utilized to represent hyper-contemporary problems and offer conceptual reflections that become powerful critiques. I will analyze the works of the artists: John Isaacs, Tony Cragg, Marc Quinn, and Eduardo Paolozzi.
Anguiano González, Minerva Deyanira, Dr. holds a degree in Art History, a Master's in Art Studies, and a Ph.D. in Social Anthropology. Her research focuses on the intersection of art, science, and gender, with the perspective provided by the anthropological discipline. She has developed professionally in the museum, academic, and research fields at both national and international institutions. She has received the FIC Scholarship for Academic Excellence and the Research Grant from Conacyt. Her most recent book is titled Antes de que nos olviden. Ensayos sobre arte y ciencia (Before We Are Forgotten: Essays on Art and Science). She has written several essays, including Textos e intertextos: ejercicio editorial para los acervos visuales (2019), Ejercicio Plástico: 1933. Reflexiones en torno a un mural colectivo (2017), Narrar y narrar de nuevo: la colección médica (2015), Cordelia Urueta y la escritura de su historia (2014), among others. She is a member of the National System of Artistic Creators (FONCA) in the essay category.
Aranda Cruzalta Andrés, Prof., Department of History and Philosophy of Medicine, UMAN.
Wax, a material in the history of medicine
Dioscórides in the second book of his De materia medica, in chapters LXXIIII and LXXVI, dedicated to honey and propolis respectively, wrote about wax, distinguishing between different kinds of waxes based on their organoleptic properties, or their geographical origin. On the other hand, nowadays, in the Kirk-Othmer Enciclopedia of Chemical Technology, it is mentioned that “waxes are usually defined more by their physical than by their chemical properties.” It seems to be clear, that for centuries, the word wax has designated substances whose essence is ambiguous.
Even more, if from a structural point of view, waxes are ambiguous, from a temporary point of view, the objects constituted by this material are anachronistic, since they have endured their production context and the goal for which they were created is, in many cases, no longer fulfilled. In the history of health sciences, waxes have played different roles, wax objects have been present in representations for educational purposes, but wax, also, has served for technical training, and, even, have participated in great scientific discoveries.
All these purposes are explained, in part, by the ambiguous nature of wax, which allows for the identification of a temporal continuum. From a linguistic perspective, the word wax reflects this continuity. However, this linguistic continuity contrasts with the anachronistic nature of its products, necessarily challenging the work of the historian.
Aranda Cruzalta Andrés, Prof. is a professor and researcher in the Department of History and Philosophy of Medicine of the Faculty of Medicine of the UNAM, which he joined in 1994, through the programme of early start to research of this Faculty, with the project Taxonomy of diseases in pre-Hispanic Nahuatl medicine directed by Dr. Carlos Viesca, being pre-Hispanic Nahuatl medicine his first line of research. He has published several works on the subject, some of them co-authored and published in the journal Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl of the Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas de la UNAM.
Ballestriero Roberta, Dr., Academy of Fine Arts of Venice
Eternal Flora: wax botany at the Imperial and Royal Museum of Physics and Natural History in Florence
The Renaissance revolution in Europe involved numerous branches of art and science including a growing interest in botany which began to develop as an independent discipline, emerging from natural history. The period also witnessed the arrival of New World, African, and Asian plants in Europe. The variety of these new discoveries was illustrated in wonderful three-dimensional collections to document the extraordinary richness of the plant world.
One of the most interesting examples is still kept in Florence made in the workshop of Ceroplastics at the Natural History Museum of La Specola which, though world famous for anatomical wax models, also houses a beautiful botanical wax collection. From its very early years, the workshop also began creating wax models of fruits, mushrooms and plants, some of them belonging to exotic species.
Simple and straightforward to understand, even for a non-educated audience, the value of these collections was inestimable for educational purposes, for example to avoid poisoning and as a documentary record, preserving colour and form.
Dr. Roberta Ballestriero obtained her European PhD from the Complutense University of Madrid. She relocated to the United Kingdom, where she has, since 2004, lectured in art history at several British universities. Since 2012, she has been teaching in the Master’s program in Art & Science at Central Saint Martins, University of the Arts London, and currently holds a teaching position at the Academy of Fine Arts in Venice.
Since 2013 she is Art Historian in residence at the Gordon Museum of Pathology, London. In 2019, she became a Scientific Member of the FAPAB Research Centre (Forensic Anthropology, Paleopathology, Anthropology, and Bioarchaeology) in Avola, Syracuse. In 2024, she was named an Honorary Member of the Bologna Surgical Medical Society, Italy.
She has authored numerous scientific publications and curated cultural events and exhibitions exploring the intersections of art, science, and anatomy. She was the founder and president of the first International Congress on Wax Modelling in forty years, held in London (2017) and Padua (2019), Mexico City (2025). She lives and works between England and Italy.
Barbagli Fausto, Biaggini Marta Dr., Nepi Chiara, “La Specola” – Florence University
Art and Science. The new section dedicated to wax models of the La Specola Museum, in Florence
One year ago, the La Specola Museum (belonging to the Museum System of the University of Florence) has reopened after five years of renovation. Two new exhibition sections have been inaugurated, including: Art and Science. Educational models. Three out of seven rooms in this new section are almost entirely dedicated to the Florentine botanical waxes, consisting of over 170 models of plants and fruits and 37 tables of plant anatomy and pathology. These wax-works are now visible to the public for the first time in over a century, once again displayed alongside human and animal anatomical waxes. The Art and Science section, illustrating the meaning and the chronological evolution of naturalistic and anatomical models in Florence, starting from the 17th century, also features the artworks by Gaetano Giulio Zumbo, a sample of the anatomical waxes still exhibited in the historical rooms of the Museum, still life paintings of Bartolomeo Bimbi, decomposable anatomical models in wood (conceived by Felice Fontana) and papier-mâché (by L. T. J. Auzoux). Outside the new exhibition section, one additional room - formerly used for several years as the Museum’s ticket office - has been restored to its original purpose. It now once again houses an exhibition of 45 anatomical wax models of animals.
Barbagli, Fausto, Curator at the Museum of Natural History of the University of Florence, "La Specola"
Museum curator at the University of Pavia since 1998. Since 2004, he has held the same position at the University Museum System of the University of Florence.
He specialises in museology, history of natural sciences and ornithology. He has curated exhibitions and participated in the organisation of scientific exhibitions, conferences and seminars. He is the author of over 200 publications, including monographs and articles in national and international scientific journals.
Since 2013, he has been President of the ANMS - National Association of Scientific Museums. He is a member of the Board of Directors of the Italian Society of Anthropology and Ethnology, of the Board of Directors of the Accademia Valdarnese del Poggio, of the Museum Commission of the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, and the Scientific Community of WWF Italy. He is a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London and a Professor at the Accademia dei Fisiocritici.
Biaggini, Marta, Dr., curator at the Museum of Natural History of the University of Florence, "La Specola"
She holds a PhD in Animal Ethology and Ecology at the University of Florence, Italy, and since then she has been active in the field of animal ecology and wildlife conservation. Since 2023 she has been responsible for the collection of anatomical models at La Specola Museum and is currently involved in projects aimed at the valorization of cultural heritage.
Nepi, Chiara, Former Head Curator Botanical Section Natural History Museum, University of Florence
From 1988 to 2025 curator of the Botanical Collections at the Natural History Museum of the University of Florence, now part of the University Museum System. She has been responsible for the conservation, management and study of the collections, particularly the historical herbaria and those in the artistic field, such as botanical waxes and still life paintings, overseeing their restoration and loan to outside exhibitions. Individually or in collaboration with other researchers, she has studied the depiction of plants in art, their identification, and their meaning. She has curated (in collaboration with others) numerous exhibitions, both internal and external, and has worked on the new display of botanical wax models and paintings at the La Specola site of the Natural History Museum. She has published works on the history of botany and herbaria, as well as on the identification of plants in various works of art.
Barbaro, Fulvio, PhD, Scientific Director of the Museum and Historical Library of Biomedicine (BIOMED) at the University of Parma (UNIPR) in Parma, Italy.
The anatomical clinical legacy of Lorenzo Tenchini and his unique anatomical collection at the University of Parma
He holds an appointment as Scientific Manager of the Laboratory of Regenerative Morphology and Bioartificial Structures (REMOBIOS) in the Department of Medicine and Surgery (DIMEC) of UNIPR, and serves as a Member of the Committee for the Third Mission of DIMEC-UNIPR. As a Tenure Track Researcher and Instructor in Human Anatomy at the DIMEC, his biomedical research focuses on the functional morphology and bioengineering of endocrine and neuroendocrine organs, computational anatomy, and its applications to neuroradiological diagnostics based on artificial intelligence algorithms, and programming of humanoid robots for health monitoring. To these aims, he leads Research Units developing EU Horizon and PRIN Projects. Being an active member of the Italian Society of Anatomy and Histology (SIAI), he also has a strong interest in human macroscopic morphology, and the preservation and study of anatomical collections.
In his duties at BIOMED, he coordinates projects on anatomical heritage conservation, digitalization, and virtual restoration of historical specimens. He has contributed to initiatives on 3D scanning of mummified anatomical preparations, and interdisciplinary research on the history of anatomical education. His work integrates scientific investigation with museology, enhancing the role of historical collections in modern biomedical research. His latest collaborative efforts includes the study of the technique used by Lorenzo Tenchini to fabricate his 19th-century anatomical masks, their reproduction with immersive 3D virtual reality, and attribution of cranial remains to the subjects represented in the masks. In light of all these scientific targets, he benefits of a continuous cooperation with international Institutions under the mentorship of Prof. Roberto Toni including the Department of Biomedicine of the University of Basel (CH), Tufts University School of Medicine, in Boston, MA, USA, and RIV University at Dubai (UAE).
For additional information, please refer to the following links:
https://mc.unipr.it/laboratorio-di-morfologia-rigenerativa-e-strutture-bioartificiali
https://www.anfamedmuseo.unipr.it/
https://www.sma.unipr.it/it/museo-diffuso-delle-scienze/collezione-di-biomedicina/
Roberto Toni, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA. Fulvio Barbaro, University of Parma, Italy.
The anatomical-clinical legay of Lorenzo Tenchini and his unique anatomical collection at the University of Parma (for the abstract see Toni, R.)
Bazarte Martínez Alicia, Dr., Independent researcher, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN)
Campeche wax,
The bee had great magical and religious importance in pre-Hispanic Mexico. It was considered the guardian of honey and, according to the Chilam Balam of Chumayel, ruled one of the four directions of the world. Smaller in size than those imported by the Spanish, its wax is used, to this day, in the form of candles as an offering in numerous magical and religious rites; as glue, it was undoubtedly a gift from Mexico to the world. From a therapeutic perspective, it is used in the preparation of ointments and poultices.
Alicia Bazarte Martínez is a graduate of the National Autonomous University of Mexico and earned her master's and doctorate degrees in the History of Societies and Economies from the 14th to the 19th Centuries from the School of Advanced Studies, Paris, France (1982). She has been a research professor at the National Polytechnic Institute for 38 years and a National Research Fellow for 29 years. She has studied the female convents of the Hieronymite Order in New Spain and published four books on the Ex-Convent of San Lorenzo in Mexico City and one on the Hieronymites of Puebla. Her other lines of research include food during the viceregal period, brotherhoods, guilds, and holy schools, as well as the ephemeral art of wax.
Cházaro García, Laura, Dr., 3D Researcher, Level III SNII, Cinvestav
Objects possessed by their origin: the pathological anatomy of the Museum of Mexican Medicine, UNAM.
This paper explores anatomical pathology specimens whose materiality reveals ontological and temporal multiplicity. To discuss these characteristics, I will refer to anatomical specimens from the Museum of Pathological Anatomy (founded in 1853) at the National School of Medicine (1833, ENM), with reference to the 1895 Anthropology collection at the National Museum. Anatomical specimens are objects that accumulate multiple layers of meaning: they were once corpses, marked by the medical history of the doctor who modelled them, by the history of the supposed race to which they belonged, but at the same time, they become objects in a collection, material for teaching how to heal and find cures for “national” pathologies. At that point, the anatomies became part of national history, prevailing over wax models made abroad. The models created at the School circulated and some travelled to the National Museum (1825), mutating into anthropological objects. These specimens show how corpse material, basically organs and bones, mutated, recreating different historicities, materials and values, estimative, monetary and political, that participate in the local, but also in global exchanges.
Cházaro García, Laura, Dr., Doctor of Philosophy from the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters. She is currently a Level III 3D Researcher of the SNII at the Center for Research and Advanced Studies. Her research areas include the history of science and education in the 19th century, scientific material culture, scientific measurements and instruments, as well as science, bodies, and gender.
Crook, Eleanor, Independent Artist
The making of a new public sculpture for London and the wax modelling techniques employed for bronze.
Eleanor Crook is sculpting an elaborate bronze memorial sculpture for a prominent public building in London. For the detailing and ornament a number of innovative, and ancient, wax techniques are involved, balancing speed of workmanship with accuracy of translation for bronze casting. The modelling calls for botanical, anatomical, architectural and jewellery wax techniques which need to be brought into a harmonious final result. In addition the sculpture will contain a mysterious wax object which the sculptor will reveal, binding all delegates to secrecy.
Garcia Huerta Norma A., Yo Restauro Patrimonio NGO, UNAM
Conserving Wax Anatomical Models from the Palace of Medicine: Methods and Findings
Between 2012 and 2013, I participated in the conservation and restoration process of 33 wax anatomical models manufactured by Maison Tramond and N. Noupert, belonging to the collection of the Museum of Mexican Medicine, located in the Palace of Medicine. These pieces, of great historical, scientific, and aesthetic value, posed a technical challenge due to the complexity of their materials and their level of deterioration.
The conservation and restoration project began with extensive documentary research aimed at understanding the original manufacturing techniques used in the 19th century. Due to the secrecy with which these production processes were kept at the time, it was not possible to find precise information. However, sources related to other objects made with the same materials were located and proved to be of great help.
Simultaneously, a series of experiments was conducted using different types of waxes, pigments, and fillers in order to recreate the tonalities, degrees of transparency, and textures as faithfully as possible to the original finish.
The restoration was particularly challenging in several models that exhibited fractures, missing parts, loss of volume, and severe alterations, which required targeted solutions—both ethical and technical. Nevertheless, the process was highly rewarding and enriching, not only because of the results achieved, but also because it allowed for the identification of construction details and artisanal techniques that are not documented in the specialized literature. This opens new avenues of study regarding the production of 19th-century European anatomical models.
This experience highlights the importance of restoration as a means of material research, as well as the value of these pieces as scientific, artistic, and pedagogical testimonies of their time.
González Illescas, Verónica, MA
Reflections on the 19th-Century Wax Modelling Tradition in Mexico and the Absence of Local Scientific/Medical Production
This paper seeks to reflect on the 19th-century wax modelling tradition in Mexico, where I will attempt to shed light on the reasons why a school of wax-makers specializing in the reproduction of anatomical/medical models did not develop in this country. This territory did not lack talented artists and artisans for the ceroplastic production, but it is interesting to note that the scientific specialty of this art never took shape formally, either within artistic institutions like the Academy of San Carlos or as an independent initiative. This does not mean that scientific collections were lacking in the 19th-century, as we can take as an example the beautiful French collection of models that belonged to the National School of Medicine, now exhibited in the Palacio de la Escuela de Medicina.
González Illescas, Verónica, MA., is responsible for Pedagogical Services and Academic Content at the Mexican Medicine Museum
She holds a Master's degree in Art History from UNAM (2020) and a Bachelor's degree in Art History from the Universidad Iberoamericana with honors (2014). In the field of research, she has focused on image studies, 19th-century public sculpture in Mexico, and the dissemination of art and science. She is currently in charge of the Pedagogical Services and Academic Content Area at the Palace of the School of Medicine. She has curated temporary art exhibitions and conducted iconographic research for editorial projects within the same institution.
Hannig, Alma, MA
The Bonn Moulage Collection and Provenance Research: Balancing the Handling of Sensitive Objects and Data with Research and Exibition Practice
The Bonn Moulage Collection is a historically significant compilation of wax models, primarily created in the early 20th century. Housed at the University of Bonn's Department of Dermatology, the collection contains over 1.000 lifelike moulages depicting a wide range of skin diseases. Originally used for medical education and diagnostic training, these models serve as both a teaching tool and cultural heritage, highlighting intersections of art, science, and the history of medicine. The focus of my talk is the history of the collection and its exceptionally thorough documentation, which raises the question of what a responsible and fair approach to sensitive objects and data might look like. In addition, the talk highlights the potential of the collection to be used across disciplines — in research, teaching, and also in exhibition practice.
Hannig, Alma, MA, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Germany.
Alma Hannig is a historian and the main coordinator for over 40 university museums and collections at the Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Germany. She is the director of the University Museum and P26, the new House of Knowledge and Research at the University of Bonn. Her research focuses on the history of the university, the provenance of university collections, and the history of diplomacy in the long 19th century in Germany and Austria.
Mario-Paul Martínez, Dr., Susana Guerrero, Dr., & Ilda Caeiro, MA, Miguel Hernández University of Elche (Spain)
Martínez Mario-Paul Dr., Miguel Hernández University of Elche (Spain)
Bodies of art and science: technical and artistic evolution of anatomical models to the present day
The appearance of the first official examples of anatomical sculptures in human form in the 16th century marked a turning point in the evolution of scientific and artistic relationships and methodologies between medicine and art. Not only because of the relevance of their shared technical and artistic findings, but also because they raised an aesthetic dimension and models of representation that are of great interest for understanding today the ways of thinking, doing, and contemplating in their historical context.
From this perspective, the project Bodies of Art and Science: Technical and Artistic Evolution of Anatomical Models to the Present Day aims to offer a new reading of the phenomenon through audiovisual research and by analyzing three notable cases in its history: la «Machine» the cloth figures constructed around 1750 by Madame du Coudray, a midwife committed to science and sex education; the “Anatomical Venuses” made in wax by Clemente Susini and Giuseppe Ferrini at the end of the 18th century for teaching and museum exhibition; and the synthetic body simulators currently made by experts in the field such as Raúl Rodríguez for hospitals and medical schools.
A documentary featuring Rodríguez himself (Los Angeles, USA; Alicante, Spain), professor and president of the Ceroplastics Congress, Roberta Ballestriero (Venice, Italy), curator of the La Specola Museum, Fausto Barbagli (Florence, Italy), and director of the Flaubert Museum and History of Medicine, Sophie Demoy-Derotte (Rouen, France), among others.
Martínez Mario-Paul Dr. Member of the Center for Research in the Arts (CíA) of the Art Department of the Miguel Hernández University of Elche, and professor of the Audiovisual Communication Degree. He is also director of the Massiva Research Group that studies the interrelation between audiovisual arts and mass culture. He is the author and editor of several books such as Ciencia y criaturas de lo fantástico (Tirant, 2024), Crimen y Fantástico (Cinestesia, 2021), or El Videojuego en el cine (Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes, 2020) and serves as deputy director of the Festival Internacional de Cine Fantástico de Elche-FANTAELX. In his creative side, he works as a graphic artist and film director, and has made films such as Arcadeología (2021) or Guerrero, la cabeza entre las manos (2022). The Accademia di Belle Arti de Venezia, Fundación BilbaoArte, Fundación Telefónica, Centro de Ciencias de Sinaloa, Instituto de Arte Moderno Valenciano (IVAM), Fundación Sabadell Cam, Centro Cultural Las Cigarreras, Centro Cultural L' Escorxador, Museo de la Universidad de Alicante (MUA), among others, have exhibited his work.
Guerrero Susana, Dr., University Miguel Hernández Elche (Spain)
Susana Guerrero holds a PhD in Fine Arts and is a research professor at the Faculty of Fine Arts of the Miguel Hernández University and a member of the Center for Arts Research CIA of the UMH. Since 2016 she has been represented by 532 Thomas Jaeckel Gallery in New York. She has obtained art grants in Greece (1997, 2023), Mexico (1998, 2000, 2002), Germany (2005), Italy (2009, 2022, 2024) and Portugal (2024). He has held numerous exhibitions in galleries and museums nationally and internationally, among which are: 532 Thomas Jaeckel Gallery, New York, USA; Yunnan Provincial Museum, China; Museo de Antioquia, Medellin, Colombia; Centro de Desarrollo de las Artes Visuales, Havana, Cuba; Museo Arte Moderno Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic; Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Guatemala; Centro Cultural España, Miami; Instituto Cervantes Tangier, Morocco; Haus der Kunst and Kunstlerhaus, Munich, Germany; Galería Charpa, Valencia and Galería Deposito 14, Madrid, Spain; Galería Punto y Línea, Oaxaca, Mexico; Galería Casa del Lago, Mexico D. F; Instituto México en España, Madrid; Kazni Nowej, Krakow, Poland; IVAM, Valencia and MACUF, A Coruña, Spain; Villa Serena, Bologna and Planetario Gallery, Trieste, Italy; Museo Ciudad Juarez, Mexico; Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Ibiza, Centro Botin, Santander; Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Alicante, Spain; Galería Universidad de Manzanillo, Mexico; Calcografía Nacional, Madrid; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; India International Center, New Delhi, India.
Her works are in national and international public and private collections. She has made collaborations in contemporary flamenco shows such as Sierpe (2019), Áspid (2020) and La Reina del metal (2022), the latter with Max Award 2023 Best Dance Show, all three with the dancer and choreographer Vanesa Aibar. She has built, together with the choreographer Asun Noales, the artistic and performative installation Rito (2016). Her documentary short film Guerrero. La cabeza entre las manos (2021), by filmmaker Mario-Paul Martínez, has received several awards, has a wide range of presentations and projections-exhibitions in museums, as well as in other spaces linked to artistic exhibition and has been selected in festivals in Spain, Latvia and Bulgaria.
Caeiro Ilda, MA, Cultural manager, curator and cultural mediator, Miguel Hernández University of Elche (Spain)
She has a degree in Social and Cultural Anthropology and a master's degree in Artistic Management and Production.
She studies the intersection between anthropology and the visual arts, exploring the cultural and symbolic relationships that emerge in contemporary artistic discourses. For years, she has worked as a cultural manager at the La Valona University Centre for Contemporary Culture (Spain), where she coordinates exhibition projects, co-directs mediation plans and advises on the UMH's heritage acquisition processes.
She has curated exhibitions such as Cuba Raíz (Spanish Embassy in Havana, Cuba), Tres cuerpos (Church of Santo Domingo de Pedraza, Segovia) and, currently, Güera Radioactiva, by the artist María Moldes. She co-directs the programming of CulturaLAB UMH, an arts education laboratory with an impact on school, university and senior audiences.
She has completed professional residencies at the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia (Italy), the University of West Attica (Greece) and the Centro de Desarrollo de las Artes Visuales (Cuba), which has provided her with a comparative view of cultural policies in different contexts.
Her interests focus on the artist's creative processes: their workspaces, everything that precedes the conception of a work, creative triggers, research, the search for materials, the transformation of an idea into a piece, and the symbolic and poetic significance of the materials.
Miranda Razo Marco Antonio, MA
From the Continent to the Content: The Ceroplastic Cabinet
This is the final proposal to exhibit, through artistic practice, a symbolic approach to the origin and development of ceroplastics, linked to the results of my research on the origin of ceroplastics. The objective was to create an interdisciplinary installation by integrating various objects and archives that complement and concretize the theoretical research I conducted. This is intended to symbolize the journey undertaken by the ceroplastic technique through Europe and Italy to Spain; the enrichment it accumulated, the political and social conditions that drove its transmission from country to country, as well as the conditions and characteristics it acquired upon its arrival in Mexico, as well as its persistence to this day as Traditional Art
Miranda Razo Marco Antonio, MA. Around the age of sixteen, he taught himself the technique of Wax sculpture. He studied at the National School of Anthropology and History (CDMX), where he attended courses and workshops on various techniques, adding to his already accumulated knowledge. He holds a Bachelor's degree in Art and Tradition and a Master's degree in Artistic Creation (CMA, Cuernavaca, Mor.). He has conducted research, contributed to, and rescued the three artisanal branches on which his work focuses: candle-making, feather-making, and religious imagery in paste and cornstalk. Over the years, he has collected seven National Awards as a Grand Master of Folk Art, and one as a Living Legend. In addition to numerous awards for his participation and collaboration in craft gatherings, international congresses, conferences, and diploma courses, he has participated in and won, numerous state, municipal, and national competitions.
Miranda Razo Marco Antonio, MA, Bazarte Martínez Alicia, Dr.
Crown of profession and death
During the viceregal era of New Spain, the Hieronymite and Conceptionist nuns wore crowns and palm leaves made of wax during their solemn profession in choir and black veil, to become brides of Christ.
They wore crowns and palm branches made of a large number of wax elements. These lavishly decorated attributes represented small, flowery paradises of flowers, birds, angels, and cherubs. Just as heavenly figures, they became witnesses of the vocation and faith of the bearer, even after their death.
Otero Zúñiga, Miguel, Dr., Departamento de Historia y Filosofía de la Medicina, Facultad de Medicina UNAM
"The Wax and the Sinister"
Works born from wax modeling possess the power to unsettle the viewer and awaken a deep emotional response. It is not merely molded material; it is the threshold between the real and the fantastic, between life and death. Wax figures, with their eerie realism, seem to lurk from the darkest corner of the territory described by Masahiro Mori as the “uncanny valley,” where the almost human evokes equal parts fascination and repulsion. Trapped in the ambiguity of wax art, the audience cannot help but wonder if those glassy eyes hide a flicker of consciousness, if the translucent skin somehow encloses a trapped soul.
Wax, due to its malleability and its ability to incorporate organic materials, becomes the perfect medium for the sinister. Freud spoke of the double, the doppelgänger, as a source of unease: wax figures, nearly perfect replicas, evoke the suspicion that life and death dangerously brush against each other on their surfaces. It is no coincidence that literature and art have turned to them to represent deception, madness, and supernatural horrors: from dolls to funerary effigies, wax is the mirror where the fantastic and the macabre reflect.
In this context, the sinister is not just a fleeting sensation but the echo of a deeper paradox: wax modeling, through its extreme realism, can deceive the senses and disturb the mind. Thus, wax and the sinister intertwine in a play of appearances, where each figure is an open threshold to the unknown, and the visitor, upon crossing it, is marked by the suspicion that the inanimate may awaken at any moment.
Panzanelli Roberta, Dr., Otis College of Art and Design
Waxing and Waning. A Tale of Florentine Ex-votos
This contribution analyses the history of Florentine wax ex-votos and their connection with the cult of miraculous images. The tradition of Florentine waxes has Etruscan and ancient Roman roots and, unlike the widely spread practice of death masks, was uniquely modeled on the living. The wax effigies were not a mere doppelgänger nor a ‘second skin’ representing the votary, but rather a copy of the negative matrix that spoke of the absence of the living, suggesting a complex ontological and metaphorical significance of the effigies.
Panzanelli Roberta, Dr., Dr. Panzanelli holds a PhD in Art History from UCLA; her dissertation focused on the early polychrome and poly-material tableaux of Sacro Monte at Varallo (Vercelli, Italy). She spent over a decade at the Getty Research Institute and The Getty Villa, organizing conferences, curating exhibitions, and publishing works such as "Ephemeral Bodies. Wax Sculpture and the Human Figure." Currently, she teaches art history and fashion theory at Otis College in Los Angeles.
Peters, Martina, Conservator, Josephinum – Medical History Museum Vienna
The 2019–2022 Renovation of the Josephinum and its Anatomical Wax Model Collection
The Josephinum, one of Vienna’s few well-preserved neoclassical monuments, underwent a major interior renovation between 2019 and 2022. Founded in 1785 by Emperor Joseph II as a medico-surgical military academy, the institution houses an exceptional collection of 18th-century anatomical wax models—originally produced in Florence at La Specola under the direction of Felice Fontana, with key contributions from anatomist Paolo Mascagni and master modeler Clemente Susini. These scientifically accurate and artistically refined models, many still displayed in their original walnut display cases, represent a unique legacy of Enlightenment-era medical education.
The primary objective of the 2019–2022 renovation was the structural and technical modernization of the historic building. However, from a curatorial perspective, the project also offered an unprecedented opportunity to reconfigure the presentation of the wax model collection in line with its original 18th-century arrangement. In preparation for the renovation, a comprehensive inventory and condition assessment of the collection was undertaken. Given the fragility and material sensitivity of the wax models, each object was evaluated and categorized as stable, sensitive, or damaged. Based on these findings, objects were relocated within the building with corresponding protective measures in place.
In parallel, a significant portion of the models underwent conservation treatment—not only to prepare them for transport during the renovation, but also to ensure their long-term stability for future exhibition. Conservation efforts addressed both structural vulnerabilities and surface cleaning, and were carried out in accordance with international standards for the care of historical scientific objects. This process is ongoing and continues to play a critical role in the preservation of the collection.
To protect the historical models from vibrations, dust, and other risks associated with construction work, the renovation was carried out in two phases. During the first phase, two-thirds of the building were under construction, while the entire collection was temporarily relocated to the southern wing of the Josephinum. Following completion of structural works, the anatomical models were reinstalled in the historically documented rooms of the first floor, while the obstetrical collection remained in the adjacent space where it had been located since the 1960s. Today, the restored Josephinum not only reflects the architectural ideals of the Enlightenment but also reaffirms its role as a vital institution for the preservation, study, and public interpretation of early medical science.
Peters, Martina, Conservator, Josephinum – Medical History Museum Vienna
Martina Peters has been working as a conservator at the Josephinum – Medical History Museum Vienna since 2013. She studied Conservation and Restoration at the University of Applied Arts Vienna, with a specialization in objects made of wax. At the Josephinum, she is primarily responsible for the care of anatomical models, moulages, and other wax artefacts. Her work encompasses preventive conservation, the conservation and restoration of objects, as well as their handling in the context of in-house exhibitions and outgoing loans. Her research focuses on the Florentine anatomical wax model collection held at the Josephinum.
Rodríguez, Martha Eugenia, Dr., Olga Mydory Mendoza Álvarez, Dr., Department of History and Philosophy of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, UNAM.
Anatomical models in the “Revista quincenal de anatomía patológica …”, 1896-1899
The objective of this presentation is to show the presence of anatomical models in teaching and research in the medical field by professors and students at the National School of Medicine in the late 19th century. This is reflected in the Revista quincenal de anatomía patológica y clínicas médicas y quirúrgicas, a publication that belonged to the Anatomical-Pathological Museum of the San Andrés Hospital.
Rodríguez, Martha Eugenia, Dr. She studied her Bachelor's degree, Master's degree, and Ph.D. in History at the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters at UNAM. She was a scholarship recipient at the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine in London, England. She is a full professor C and the head of the Department of History and Philosophy of Medicine at the Faculty of Medicine. She teaches both undergraduate and graduate courses. She was the president of the Mexican Society of History and Philosophy of Medicine. She is a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) and belongs to the National Academy of Medicine, the Mexican Academy of Surgery, the Mexican Academy of Sciences, and the Mexican National Academy of Bioethics. Her research focuses on medicine during the colonial period and the 19th century.
Olga Mydory Mendoza Álvarez, Dr. M. D. graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM). Master of Science from the Master’s and Doctorate Program in Medical, Dental, and Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNAM. Professor of “History and Philosophy of Medicine” in the Department of History and Philosophy of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, UNAM. Co-author of the chapter “The introduction of anesthesia in Mexico” in Mexican medicine in the bicentennial, 1821-2021. Characters, disciplines, and culture (2021). Co-author of the chapter “Advertising of medicines in specialized journals (1869-1935)” in History of therapeutics in Mexico. Resources, treatments and procedures (2023). Full member of the Mexican Society of History and Philosophy of Medicine A.C.
Sánchez, Gabino, Dr., Prof., Juan Carlos Ortiz Castillo, Dr., Department of History and Philosophy of Medicine, UNAM
Anatomical Models and Medical Education at the National School of Medicine of Mexico.
In 1833, the Establishment of Medical Sciences was founded in Mexico to offer students a professional career in medicine and surgery. One of the subjects included in the curriculum was pathology. Professors at the School of Medicine throughout the 19th century used French textbooks to teach pathology.
To strengthen the study of pathology, the authorities created the Anatomical Museum of the National School of Medicine in 1870, which had a collection of anatomical models representing known pathologies and allowing students to learn about and see the diseases in situ. Using information from medical textbooks and anatomical models, a theoretical and practical model for teaching pathology was developed in Mexico at the end of the 19th century at the National School of Medicine.
Sánchez, Gabino, Dr. He holds a Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctorate in History from the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters at UNAM. Currently, he is a Professor at the Faculty of Medicine, UNAM, and President of the Mexican Society for the History and Philosophy of Medicine. He teaches History and Philosophy of Medicine in the Department of History and Philosophy at the Faculty of Medicine and is a Graduate Professor of Mexican Medical History in the Master's and Doctoral Program in Medical, Dental, and Health Sciences. He has been the primary advisor for two undergraduate students, seven master's students, and is currently supervising a doctoral thesis in the field of medical humanities. He is the author of the following books. Development of Scientific Medicine, Government of the State of Mexico, Pinacoteca 2000, Biblioteca Mexiquense del Bicentenario, 2009. History of the National Medical Institute of Mexico 1888-1915, Mexico, UNAM, Faculty of Medicine, 2019. The Anatomical Museum of the National School of Medicine 1870-1910, Mexico, UNAM, Faculty of Medicine, 2019. He has authored 15 scientific articles, 25 book chapters, and over 50 dissemination articles in the field of medical humanities. In 2018, the National Academy of Medicine of Mexico awarded him the "Dr. Germán Somolinos D’Ardois" Prize in recognition of his professional career and lifelong dedication to the study and dissemination of the history of medicine.
Roberto Toni, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA. Fulvio Barbaro, University of Parma, Italy.
The anatomical-clinical legay of Lorenzo Tenchini and his unique anatomical collection at the University of Parma
Fulvio Barbaro1, Giusy Di Conza1, Francesca Pia Quartulli1, Licia Usai2 Salvatore Mosca3, Marco Di Felice4, Valeria Seidita5, Stefano Borgo6, Paolo Scudellari7, Roberto Rivera10, Roberto Toni6,8,9,10
1 Re.Mo.BIO.S Lab.- and 2 Forensic Medicine - DIMEC, 1 BIOMED Collection - SMA, UNIPR; 3 Course on the Locomotor System, San Raffaele Univ - Hospital, Milan, 4 Dept of Engineering - IoT-Prism Lab and 7 DIBINEM, UNIBO, 5 RoboticsLab - Dept of Engineering, UNIPA, CNR 6 ISTC-LOA and 8 ISSMC, Italy; 9 Tufts University / Tufts Medical Center - Endocrinology, Boston, MA, USA; 10 RIV Capital, Luxembourg and Dubai, UAE
The anatomist and psychiatrist Lorenzo Tenchini first developed at the University of Parma, in Italy a unique anatomical collection at the end of the 19th century. As a mentee of Giovanni Zoja and Cesare Lombroso at the University of Pavia, he built up his collection in the attempt to develop an investigational methodology focused on changes/modifications/dysmorphisms of the brain “geometry” to justify a clinical diagnosis in subjects with mental disorders, social deviances, and/or delinquent behavior. Thus, he introduced the concept of linking a change in brain “shape” to a behavioral manifestation, providing an unexpected backbone for the modern Clinical Neuroanatomy. With his approach, he anticipated of more than 100 years recent functional imaging studies showing statistically significant, macroscopic and/or microscopic changes in brain regions supervising higher mental functions in large cohorts of schizophrenics with violent behavior and/or perverted attitude, addiction, and/or social dystonia with respect to control subjects.
At the same time, he collected and prepared mummified specimens of the bodies whose brains were instrumental to his psychopathological studies, preserving all their anatomical structures in a stratigraphic-like progression up to the bones, including the vessels variably injected with colored masses and resins. Finally, he also reproduced the phenotypic traits of the faces of these subjects as 3D masks, internationally known as the Masks of Tenchini. Following a recent interpretation by Roberta Ballestriero, these face reproductions are believed without any specific physiognomic, Lombrosian-like significance but simply providing a “3D mugshot” of the person whose brain had been studied. This suggestion finds groundwork in the absence of any reference to these exquisite products of scientific handcraft in the research publications of Tenchini, kept in the Historical Library of Human Anatomy at the DIMEC in UNIPR, Italy. In contrast, the behavioral hermeneutics of Cesare
Lombroso is gravid of the physiognomic preconception, that does not belong to the research and scientific intents focused on the brain function by Lorenzo Tenchini.
The technique used by Tenchini to fabricate his Masks has remained a mystery for a long time and, only recently our group provided detailed studies in the international literature clarifying his procedure as an “ante-litteram” additive layer manufacturing, based on different and superimposed layers of plaster, cotton gaze, and even the original epidermis of the subject’s face, interclade with layers of wax. Remarkably, this approach is quite similar to the layered anatomical organization of the surgical flap (epidermis + dermis + hypodermal structures) used for experimental transfer onto a synthetic 3D resin model of the recipient’s face in preparation for a real face transplant. Very recently, a collaborative study conducted in Parma on the BIOMED collection allowed for identification of two new masks believed lost, whose represented subjects it was possible to locate the skull, brain, and legal history. This result was achieved thanks to an original method of confrontation between the measured craniometric parameters of the skull and the original measurements present in the 19th century, historical documents of the collection.
The uniqueness of the Tenchini’s collection resides also in its usefulness for the development of software for high definition, 3D virtual immersive reality of anatomical pathways. In particular, these simulations are suitable for training humanoid robots in the recognition of critical anatomical areas for first aid, surgical maneuvers in extreme conditions like environmental catastrophes, and missions in the extraterrestrial space. Based on these premises, the authors are currently engaged in two National Research Projects (PRIN-MIUR-PNRR P20224TAETP and P2022H74YP) aimed at pursuing innovative approaches in the use of humanoid robots trained by digital twin-dependent libraries of anatomically-defined gestures, for monitoring motion in rehabilitating patients. Studies on the patentability and marketability of the ensuing digital systems are equally under intense study.
Toni, Roberto, Prof., Adjunct Professor of Medicine, Department of Medicine Division Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
Research Associate, National Research Council (CNR) - ISSMC, Faenza, Italy, Scientific Consultant, RIV-Capital Inc. Luxembourg and Dubai (UAE), and Senior Founder, Laboratory of Regenerative Morphology and Bioartificial Structures, Department of Medicine and Surgery, and Museum and Historical Library of Biomedicine (BIOMED), University of Parma, Parma, Italy. Pre-doctoral Fellow at the Cardiothoracic Institute of the University of London (UK) and Department of Biochemistry - Edgenossiche Technische Hochschule (ETH) of Zurich (CH), he obtained his MD degree and Subspecialty Board in Internal Medicine at the University of Bologna, and Subspecialty Board of Endocrinology at the University of Modena, Italy. Post-doctoral Fellow at the Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet of Stockholm (Sweden), in 1987 he was awarded an NIH-International Fogarty Fellowship PhD in Endocrinology at the Endocrinology Division - New England Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA, where he remained up to 1989. From 2000 to 2023 he held the appointment of Professor of Human Anatomy and Scientific Director of BIOMED at the University of Parma, Italy; here, in 2017 he promoted the first international exposition of the historical collection of masks and anatomical preparations by the nineteenth-century anatomist and psychiatrist, Lorenzo Tenchini who was forerunner of the modern concepts of clinical neuroanatomy based on the principle of morpho-functional unity, and its application to the psychic deviance. In collaboration with his original research group at the University of Parma, Roberto Toni is currently engaged in a number of research topics in molecular endocrinology, regenerative medicine of endocrine and neuroendocrine structures, bioartificial organ engineering, and mechanisms regulating the hypothalamic-pituitary axis in mammals and man including the role of endocrine disrupting chemicals. As a clinician and researcher, attention is currently paid to emerging fields in health care and its monitoring through innovative informatic technologies like smart spaces, digital twins, and the use of humanoid robots for collaborative support to the human action during motor rehabilitation, and in extreme survival conditions like those of explorers in Polar bases and astronauts during Space missions. Member of the Academy of Sciences of Bologna and Accademia Peloritana dei Pericolanti of Messina, Italy he has served in the Editorial and Review Boards of national and international scientific journals of the biomedical and endocrine/metabolic fields and, in collaboration with a number of national and international Academic and Research Institutions he is actively working on innovative symbolic languages for inferential clinical reasoning based on anatomical knowledge. Instrumental to these studies, the Tenchini’s masks and anatomical collection at Parma University provide a valuable source of data for training humanoid robots with computer vision to recognize anatomical parts and face physionomics for first aid intervention to human subjects.
Viesca Treviño, Carlos, Dr., Researcher in the Department of History and Philosophy of the Faculty of Medicine, UNAM.
The Vienna Josephinum, Alessandro Brambilla and its anatomical wax models collection.
In 1785, Joseph II, Emperor of Austria, asks to the Florence Imperial and Regio Physics and Natural History Museum for the elaboration of a considerable number of wax anatomical sculptures, which at last coming to be around 1200. The idea came from Alessandro Brambilla, physician and surgeon of the Emperor, which was also in charge of the health attention and education of military physicians and surgeons, thinking on the importance to have anatomical models in a moment when not only normal anatomy but also pathological anatomy and the possibility to develop new surgical procedures. Felice Fontana was, in Florence, the responsible to supervise the elaboration of the sculptures and Brambilla organized its removal from Florence to Vienna, precisely to the Josephinum, its new General Hospital, then recently founded, where remain until today being one of the most precious wax anatomical models collection.
Viesca Treviño, Carlos, Dr., Department of History and Philosophy of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, UNAM; International Society for the History of Medicine; Academia Panamericana de Historia de la Medicina; Sociedad Mexicana de Historia y Filosofía de la Medicina; Academia Nacional de Medicina de Mexico; Academia Mexicana de Cirugía.
He is a medical surgeon from the Faculty of Medicine at UNAM, a general surgeon, and holds a Doctorate in Sciences with a specialization in the History of Science from UAM. He is a full-time Professor C in the Department of History and Philosophy of Medicine at the Faculty of Medicine, UNAM. He served as head of this department from 1983 to 2012.
Member of the National System of Researchers from 1984 to 2020. He is also a member of several prestigious academies, including the National Academy of Medicine, the Mexican Academy of Surgery, the Mexican Academy of Sciences, the International Academy of Philosophy of Science (AIaPS), and the Mexican Society of History and Philosophy of Medicine.
Currently, he serves as the President of the International Society for the History of Medicine and Honorary President of the Pan-American Academy of the History of Medicine. He is the author and editor of 51 books, has contributed to over 100 book chapters, and has published nearly 200 articles in national and international journals.
Department of History and Philosophy of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, UNAM; International Society for the History of Medicine; Academia Panamericana de Historia de la Medicina; Sociedad Mexicana de Historia y Filosofía de la Medicina; Academia Nacional de Medicina de Mexico; Academia Mexicana de Cirugía.
Tapia Jesús Jurado, Dr., Olvera Cortés, Hugo Erick, Faculty of Medicine, UNAM.
From anatomical art to immersive experience: Wax modeling and its legacy in clinical simulation
The conference “From Anatomical Art to Immersive Experience: Wax Modeling and Its Legacy in Clinical Simulation” examines how the foundations of wax modeling such as realism, anatomical representation, and safety, have evolved into essential elements of contemporary medical education. At the undergraduate level, it will address how these principles are applied in simulation methodologies that enable early-stage medical students to acquire anatomical and clinical knowledge in a practical, precise, and safe manner. At the postgraduate level, it will explore the use of simulators in high-complexity clinical scenarios, highlighting their role in developing technical and non-technical skills, as well as in integrating immersive experiences that enhance professional preparation and improve patient safety.
Jesús Tapia Jurado, Dr. is a medical doctor from UNAM with a specialty in General Surgery. He served as Head of the Surgical Nutritional Support Service at the Hospital de Especialidades of the National Medical Center Siglo XXI (IMSS) and was Head of the Department of Surgery at the Faculty of Medicine, UNAM (2010-2016). He is a member of the American College of Surgeons and the Latin American Federation of General Surgery and has presided over the Mexican Association of Enteral and Parenteral Nutrition, the Mexican Association of General Surgery, and the Mexican Academy of Surgery (2017-2018).
With over 45 years of teaching at the Faculty of Medicine, UNAM, he has delivered more than 500 national and international lectures, collaborated in 172 postgraduate courses, published 75 research papers, and edited seven books. He has received awards such as the Aesclepio Award for Excellence in Surgical Teaching and the Hospital Merit Medal from the Military Hospital of Bogotá. He is currently the Head of the Postgraduate Simulation Unit (USIP), overseeing CESIM and CESIQ, and actively participates in organizations such as CONACEM, COMAEM, and CONAMED, as well as in international patient safety initiatives.
Hugo Erick Olvera Cortés is a physician from the Faculty of Medicine at UNAM, holding master’s degrees in Competency-Based Education and in Administration and Management of Hospital Institutions, as well as doctoral training in Education. He has specialized in clinical simulation, earning certifications as a Certified Healthcare Simulation Educator (CHSE) and Simulation Operations Specialist (CHSOS) from the Society for Simulation in Healthcare. His experience combines teaching, academic management, and the development of innovative programs aimed at training healthcare professionals through an active, competency-based learning approach.
He currently serves as Interim Head of the Department of Integration of Medical Sciences at the Faculty of Medicine, UNAM, where he leads courses, workshops, and diploma programs in clinical simulation, faculty development, and competency assessment. His work has extended beyond the classroom, participating in national and international conferences, developing technology-based educational strategies, and promoting a culture of patient safety and interprofessionalism in health sciences education.