Andrés Aranda Cruzalta, Departamento de historia y Filosofía de la Medicina, Facultad de Medicina, UNAM
Wax, a material in the history of medicine
Dioscórides in the second book of his De materia medica, in chapters LXXIIII and LXXVI, dedicated to honey and propolis respectively, wrote about wax, distinguishing between different kinds of waxes based on their organoleptic properties, or their geographical origin. On the other hand, nowadays, in the Kirk-Othmer Enciclopedia of Chemical Technology, it is mentioned that “waxes are usually defined more by their physical than by their chemical properties.” It seems to be clear, that for centuries, the word wax has designated substances whose essence is ambiguous.
Even more, if from a structural point of view, waxes are ambiguous, from a temporary point of view, the objects constituted by this material are anachronistic, since they have endured their production context and the goal for which they were created is, in many cases, no longer fulfilled. In the history of health sciences, waxes have played different roles, wax objects have been present in representations for educational purposes, but wax, also, has served for technical training, and, even, have participated in great scientific discoveries.
All these purposes are explained, in part, by the ambiguous nature of wax, which allows for the identification of a temporal continuum. From a linguistic perspective, the word wax reflects this continuity. However, this linguistic continuity contrasts with the anachronistic nature of its products, necessarily challenging the work of the historian.

Ambrosi, Moira, Department of Chemistry Ugo Schiff, University of Florence, Italy
Understanding the formation of efflorescence on wax models at the Natural History Museum of Florence.
The appearance of a white efflorescence (commonly called "wax bloom") that periodically covers part or all of the surface of wax objects is a common phenomenon affecting wax objects in museums around the world. Although long known, its formation mechanism, as well as its correlation with the composition of the object, is not fully understood. The wax modeling workshop founded in Florence in 1771 by Felice Fontana was active for almost a century and produced models for various Italian and foreign institutions. The Natural History Museum of Florence, and in particular "La Specola", still houses several collections of wax models produced by Clemente Susini and collaborators. The collections include models of fruit and plants, vertebrates and invertebrates, and anatomical models, the latter representing a true three-dimensional treatise on human anatomy. In this work, thermal and X-ray measurements were performed to reveal the formation mechanism of the efflorescence and its effect on the structure of the models. The results indicate that poor solid-solid miscibility between the efflorescence compounds and the other beeswax components leads to phase separation followed by migration of the immiscible materials towards the model surface. Furthermore, X- ray diffraction reveals a higher structural order of the models compared to the reference beeswax, certainly related to the higher brittleness found by rheology measurements. Gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry was used to determine the efflorescence composition and to investigate its correlation with the model composition. As expected, the efflorescence is mainly composed of palmitic and stearic acids. Furthermore, the results suggest that the use of additives, such as oils and fats, contributes to the formation of the exudate, together with the natural aging of the beeswax.

Anguiano, Minerva Deyanira, Dr. Curator of the Mexican Medicine Museum
There is no more wax than that which burns.
She holds a degree in Art History, a Master's in Art Studies, and a Ph.D. in Social Anthropology. Her research focuses on the intersection of art, science, and gender, with the perspective provided by the anthropological discipline. She has developed professionally in the museum, academic, and research fields at both national and international institutions. She has received the FIC Scholarship for Academic Excellence and the Research Grant from Conacyt. Her most recent book is titled Antes de que nos olviden. Ensayos sobre arte y ciencia (Before We Are Forgotten: Essays on Art and Science). She has written several essays, including Textos e intertextos: ejercicio editorial para los acervos visuales (2019), Ejercicio Plástico: 1933. Reflexiones en torno a un mural colectivo (2017), Narrar y narrar de nuevo: la colección médica (2015), Cordelia Urueta y la escritura de su historia (2014), among others. She is a member of the National System of Artistic Creators (FONCA) in the essay category.

Barbaro, Fulvio, PhD, is Scientific Director of the Museum and Historical Library of Biomedicine (BIOMED) at the University of Parma (UNIPR) in Parma, Italy.
The anatomical clinical legacy of Lorenzo Tenchini and his unique anatomical collection at the University of Parma
He also holds an appointment as Scientific Manager of the Laboratory of Regenerative Morphology and Bioartificial Structures (REMOBIOS) in the Department of Medicine and Surgery (DIMEC) of UNIPR, and serves as a Member of the Committee for the Third Mission of DIMEC-UNIPR. As a Tenure Track Researcher and Instructor in Human Anatomy at the DIMEC, his biomedical research focuses on the functional morphology and bioengineering of endocrine and neuroendocrine organs, computational anatomy, and its applications to neuroradiological diagnostics based on artificial intelligence algorithms, and programming of humanoid robots for health monitoring. To these aims, he leads Research Units developing EU Horizon and PRIN Projects. Being an active member of the Italian Society of Anatomy and Histology (SIAI), he also has a strong interest in human macroscopic morphology, and the preservation and study of anatomical collections.
In his duties at BIOMED, he coordinates projects on anatomical heritage conservation, digitalization, and virtual restoration of historical specimens. He has contributed to initiatives on 3D scanning of mummified anatomical preparations, and interdisciplinary research on the history of anatomical education. His work integrates scientific investigation with museology, enhancing the role of historical collections in modern biomedical research. His latest collaborative efforts includes the study of the technique used by Lorenzo Tenchini to fabricate his 19th-century anatomical masks, their reproduction with immersive 3D virtual reality, and attribution of cranial remains to the subjects represented in the masks. In light of all these scientific targets, he benefits of a continuous cooperation with international Institutions under the mentorship of Prof. Roberto Toni including the Department of Biomedicine of the University of Basel (CH), Tufts University School of Medicine, in Boston, MA, USA, and RIV University at Dubai (UAE).
For additional information, please refer to the following links:
https://mc.unipr.it/laboratorio-di-morfologia-rigenerativa-e-strutture-bioartificiali
https://www.anfamedmuseo.unipr.it/
https://www.sma.unipr.it/it/museo-diffuso-delle-scienze/collezione-di-biomedicina/

Báez Hernández Montserrat, Andrea, Università di Teramo/ KU Leuven
Tripisciano Modeled, Fasulo Produced: The Discovery of a Body-Reliquary from Caltanissetta in Mexico.
Gaetano Zumbo (1656–1701), Ercole Lelli (1702–1766), Anna Morandi (1716–1774), Felice Fontana (1730–1805), and Clemente Susini (1754–1814) were among the Italian masters of wax who were active between the 17th and 19th centuries. Renowned for their extraordinary work on anatomical and botanical models, their creations are now part of significant scientific collections across Europe. Meanwhile, the practice of waxwork for artistic and sacred purposes continued to evolve in regions such as Sicily, Florence, and Rome. Particularly in the Città Eterna, the body-reliquary—a type of wax sculpture representing the image of a recumbent martyr—was produced in the final decades of the 18th century. These sculptures were intended to house the relics of holy martyrs taken from the Roman catacombs.
The aim of this communication is to present the discovery of a work signed by the Sicilian artists Domenico Fasulo (1834–1920), a master of wax, and the sculptor Michele Tripisciano (1860–1913). The characteristics of this sculpture align with those of a body-reliquary, although the relics it once housed are now missing. Nonetheless, its discovery offers an opportunity to reflect on the continuity of wax sculpture for sacred purposes into the early 20th century, as well as to recover the legacy of both Sicilian artists, whose work is now housed in an important private collection in Mexico City.

Beltran Pardo Aldo, Giovanni
The anatomic ceroplastic and retrospective analysis of anatomy learning
This text addressed the anatomy study history, going through the different stages of its evolution and development, linked not only to its main nature as an ally of medical learning, but also the concept of the body in each era, having as a meeting point the development of anatomical ceroplastics in the 18th century. The circumstances that led to the elaboration of anatomical wax models and their diffusion throughout Europe and America, not only as a teaching tool but also as artistic exhibition pieces, both in museum and in traveling fairs.

Biaggini, Marta, curator at the Museum of Natural History of the University of Florence, La Specola
She holds a PhD in Animal Ethology and Ecology at the University of Florence, Italy, and since then she has been active in the field of animal ecology and wildlife conservation. Since 2023 she has been responsible for the collection of anatomical models at La Specola Museum and is currently involved in projects aimed at the valorization of cultural heritage.
Art and Science. The new section dedicated to wax models of the La Specola Museum, in Florence
One year ago, the La Specola Museum (belonging to the Museum System of the University of Florence) has reopened after five years of renovation. Two new exhibition sections have been inaugurated, including: Art and Science. Educational models. Three out of seven rooms in this new section are almost entirely dedicated to the Florentine botanical waxes, consisting of over 170 models of plants and fruits and 37 tables of plant anatomy and pathology. These wax-works are now visible to the public for the first time in over a century, once again displayed alongside human and animal anatomical waxes. The Art and Science section, illustrating the meaning and the chronological evolution of naturalistic and anatomical models in Florence, starting from the 17th century, also features the artworks by Gaetano Giulio Zumbo, a sample of the anatomical waxes still exhibited in the historical rooms of the Museum, still life paintings of Bartolomeo Bimbi, decomposable anatomical models in wood (conceived by Felice Fontana) and papier-mâché (by L. T. J. Auzoux). Outside the new exhibition section, one additional room - formerly used for several years as the Museum’s ticket office - has been restored to its original purpose. It now once again houses an exhibition of 45 anatomical wax models of animals.

Benitez Rangel, Daniela Abigail, Sanchez Ramirez C. Hazel, Palace of the School of Medicine, UNAM
The creative response, Pedagogy through art, taking as a sample the 19th century Wax room of the Old Palace of the Inquisition, current Museum of Medicine of the UNAM
This presentation arises from the experience as volunteers and guides at the Palace of the Old School of Medicine, headquarters of the Museum of Mexican Medicine, with the purpose to reflect on the challenges and didactic possibilities of one of its most shocking exhibits: the pieces of anatomical, pathological, and ophthalmic ceroplasty of the 19th century.

Bessi, Sara
The restoration of the wax Pietà by Massimiliano Soldani Benzi from Ginori Museum. Research and experimentation on synthetic formulations and cold-fill materials for the reconstruction of losses in ceroplastics.
This study was carried out as part of a thesis project at the Opificio delle Pietre Dure, that was focused on the restoration of the wax Pietà executed by the Manifattura Ginori around 1745, using the original plaster molds made by Massimiliano Soldani Benzi. The aim of the research was to investigate the issue of reconstruction of losses in wax sculpture, particularly in ceroplastic works composed of mixed materials—such as wax, plaster, and metal—which are inherently incompatible, as exemplified by the Pietà.

Carraro, Sabina and Stierlin, Johanna, Museum of Wax Moulages, University of Zurich
Wax Models and Human Remains: Tracing a Compelling History
The Medical Collection Inselspital Bern and the collection of the Institute for the History of Medicine at the University of Bern contains eleven models from the Vasseur-Tramond-Rouppert workshop, which are permanently stored in the Zurich Wax Museum. The models were made in Paris during the second half of the 19th century until the beginning of the 20th century. Most of them were made of colored wax on a base of human bone preparations. For the first time in their history, their origin, history and manufacturing techniques were thoroughly analyzed in 2023. The use of human bone material had aesthetic and constructive functions. In combination with various wax processing techniques, anatomically accurate and durable models were created for teaching and research, which still have educational value today. The manufacturers developed highly qualified procedures in both anatomical preparation and ceroplastics and made the Tramond workshop internationally renowned. When examining the models, an attempt was also made to trace the stories of the people whose bones or body casts were used.
Human remains used for this type of wax model are often difficult to recognize as such. Therefore, these models require particularly careful handling and an awareness of ethical and legal issues and must be handled by conservation specialists.

Carreta, Jorge Augusto, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil
The uses of ceroplastics at the Faculty of Medicine of University of São Paulo
This presentation aims to discuss the importance of the wax models used at the Faculty of Medicine of the University of São Paulo. The moldings (or moulages), depicting diseases, were produced by the artist Augusto Esteves between the 1930s and 1950s. We investigate the role played by the wax models in teaching of dermatology and forensics. Furthermore, we intend to understand the relationship between the wax models and the project to build a tropical nosology in dermatology, essential strategy to the consolidation of this medical specialty in São Paulo.

Chadwick Irarrázaval, María Teresa, (Tere Chad). Chilean independent artist and curator
Wax role in public art: a malleable media facilitating dialogues
Thomas London Day School invited Tere Chad to work on her first permanent public Art commission at their new development: Atlantic House (Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, London, 2024). Due to the challenges behind displaying permanent art in a conservation area, Tere Chad has undertaken thorough research including literature review, experts’ interviews and mentorship, ethnographic research and a public engagement programme. This paper explores wax not only as a functional media to create permanent public art, but also as a media that in its malleable nature facilitates dialogue between the artist and the diverse stakeholders.
TLDS Atlantic House, compromises 2 buildings, Lytham House (1850 – 1879) which used to be the studio of the Victorian painter Richard Ansdell - known for his animal paintings- and Atlantic House (1940 – 1999). The permanent public art will combine animals referencing Lytham House with a post-war sculptural style of robust and undefined silhouettes referencing Atlantic House. The project compromises diverse types of stakeholders: the owners of the school, the developer, the architects, the builders, the pupils, the teachers, the council and the neighbours. Working with our hands is a slow process, which requires total embodiment driving you into a meditative state. This research explores how a substantial number of hours modelling wax with your hands can instigate divergent reflection, thus optimising negotiating skills during the decision-making process of permanent public art.

Cházaro García, Laura, Dr., 3D Researcher, Level III SNII, Cinvestav
The Vasseur Models of the Palace of Medicine.
Doctor of Philosophy from the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters. She is currently a Level III 3D Researcher of the SNII at the Center for Research and Advanced Studies. Her research areas include the history of science and education in the 19th century, scientific material culture, scientific measurements and instruments, as well as science, bodies, and gender.

Corti, Claudia
“La Specola” Museum, SMA, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
The plaster cast collection of the “La Specola Museum” in Florence
The Laboratory of Ceroplastics at the “La Specola” Museum, founded by Felice Fontana (1730-1805), the first director of the “Imperial Regio Museo di Fisica e Storia Naturale”, with the support of Grand Duke Pietro Leopoldo, operated from 1771 for around a century, officially closing in 1893. The collection of anatomical wax models at the 'La Specola' Museum was intended to provide an accurate representation of the human body, forming a three-dimensional encyclopedia of human anatomy. The wax models of animals and plants were also made with the utmost attention to detail. A large number of plaster casts were produced to create all the models. The collection of plaster casts comprises more than 1,400 pieces, mainly negative and life-size models. It includes human organs and anatomical parts, botanical and zoological models; busts of famous people and positive and negative medallions of famous scientists were also produced in plaster. The collection also includes plaster capitals, shelves and vases with marble decorations in the neoclassical style.

Crook, Eleanor
The making of a new public sculpture for London and the wax modelling techniques employed for bronze.
Eleanor Crook is sculpting an elaborate bronze memorial sculpture for a prominent public building in London. For the detailing and ornament a number of innovative, and ancient, wax techniques are involved, balancing speed of workmanship with accuracy of translation for bronze casting. The modelling calls for botanical, anatomical, architectural and jewellery wax techniques which need to be brought into a harmonious final result. In addition the sculpture will contain a mysterious wax object which the sculptor will reveal, binding all delegates to secrecy.

Duffour Vivanco, Rosana, Museo Casa de las Mil Muñecas
The Wax Doll in Mexico: Challenges in Documenting Its Development and Cultural Significance
This lecture will explore the role of the wax doll within the broader context of dolls in Mexico and worldwide. It will examine the historical challenges of tracing accurate information about its development and emphasize its cultural and historical relevance. The talk will highlight the wax doll’s contribution as a distinctive element of Mexican tradition, as well as its value in both private collecting and the construction of national cultural identity.

Galassi, Francesco Maria (University of Lodz, Poland), Varotto Elena (Flinders University, Australia)
The Origins of Wax Modelling in the Ancient World and the Role of Roman Funerary Masks
This paper investigates the origins of wax modelling in antiquity, focusing on its use in Roman funerary culture and the symbolic role of imagines maiorum—ancestral wax masks—within elite households. While wax had diverse applications in the ancient world, from votive figures in Greek sanctuaries to mummification practices in Egypt, it was in Republican Rome that it acquired a unique political and commemorative function. Preserved in the atrium of patrician homes and paraded during funerals, these masks were not merely portraits of the dead but visual anchors of family identity, social continuity, and political legitimacy.
Drawing on ancient sources such as Polybius and Pliny the Elder, as well as on archaeological and iconographic evidence, the paper traces the technical and ideological development of wax modelling. It argues that the Roman use of wax masks reflects a distinct conceptualization of memory and personhood, one in which the dead continued to participate in the public life of the living. A pivotal example is the funeral of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, where a wax effigy of the dictator, bearing the wounds of his assassination, was displayed on a rotating platform during the public oration—an innovation that not only stirred the Roman crowd but also marked a turning point in the use of wax for political spectacle.
The paper situates this phenomenon within a broader Mediterranean context, considering earlier and parallel uses of wax in Egypt, Etruria, and Hellenistic Asia Minor, while also exploring its influence on later artistic traditions. Ultimately, it highlights how the malleability of wax—both materially and symbolically—enabled Romans to construct and manipulate memory in ways that profoundly shaped their visual and ritual culture.

González Illescas, Verónica, Mtra., Responsible for Pedagogical Services and Academic Content at the Mexican Medicine Museum
Reflections on the 19th-Century Wax Modelling Tradition in Mexico and the Absence of Local Scientific/Medical Production
She holds a Master's degree in Art History from UNAM (2020) and a Bachelor's degree in Art History from the Universidad Iberoamericana with honors (2014). In the field of research, she has focused on image studies, 19th-century public sculpture in Mexico, and the dissemination of art and science. She is currently in charge of the Pedagogical Services and Academic Content Area at the Palace of the School of Medicine. She has curated temporary art exhibitions and conducted iconographic research for editorial projects within the same institution.

Gramenzi Annagiulia, Lodolo Elisa, Orsini Ester, Manzoli Lucia, Ratti Stefano
Cellular Signalling Laboratory, Anatomy Center, Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences (DIBINEM), Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.
Reading the body: the 19th century pygopagus conjoined twins at the “Luigi Cattaneo” Collection between wax, bone and CT scans.
Conjoined pygopagus, from the Greek pygē (buttocks) and pagos (fixed or joined), is a subtype of ischiopagus twins and represents an extremely rare condition characterized by fusion at the sacral region. The “Luigi Cattaneo” Anatomical Wax Collection of Bologna preserves a rare 19th-century wax model of pygopagus female twins, fused at the sacral and gluteal regions, which stands out for its anatomical precision and didactic value. Produced in the first half of the 19th century, as part of the flourishing Bolognese tradition of ceroplastics, this anatomical wax was intended for both teaching and demonstration purposes. What makes this model particularly remarkable is the presence, in addition to the ceroplastic figure, of the natural skeleton and a preserved portion of intestine, all accompanied by a detailed Latin anatomical description written in 1833 by Francesco Mondini, physician and professor at the University of Bologna. These elements provide insight not only into the congenital morphology but also into the educational and scientific practices of 19th-century anatomical study and offer a unique opportunity for comparative analysis between organic remains and ceroplastic interpretation. For the purpose of our study CT scans were acquired for all components—wax, skeleton, and visceral preparation—and historical anatomical texts were transcribed, translated, and studied. A key aim was to correlate the radiological findings with the historical descriptions and to revisit this wax figure through the lens of contemporary medical knowledge and historical museology. This integrated, interdisciplinary approach—combining medical imaging, historical texts, and anatomical modeling—highlights the scientific and educational value of ceroplastic collections. It demonstrates how historical specimens, when studied with modern tools, can still offer meaningful contributions to contemporary discussions on complex congenital anomalies, medical history, and museum curation.

Gutiérrez de la Barrera Marcos, Facultad de Medicina UNAM
Physical modelling for “sensorization” in human embryology learning and research
There are limited contemporary experiences in the systematical use of physical modelling in embryology learning and research in a Medical School academic department. In the context of using illustrations from textbooks and original scientific articles as the primary resource for visualization—usually offering only a single perspective on sensory integration—and considering the rapid advancement of digital visualization on screens, which remains limited for daily work in learning and research in embryology, the implementation of a hands-on and participatory approach to creating physical models, both by instructors and students, of various embryological structures and processes offers a much richer sensory experience than visualization alone. This approach can be a valuable tool for conceptualizing embryology, both for medical students and researchers working on specific embryological issues.
Here we propose a framework for the organization of the available evidence and a practical route for the research necessary for its development and for its practical implementation.

Hannig, Alma
Alma Hannig is a historian and the main coordinator for over 40 university museums and collections at the Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Germany. She is the director of the University Museum and P26, the new House of Knowledge and Research at the University of Bonn. Her research focuses on the history of the university, the provenance of university collections, and the history of diplomacy in the long 19th century in Germany and Austria.
The Bonn Moulage Collection and Provenance Research: Balancing the Handling of Sensitive Objects and Data with Research and Exibition Practice
The Bonn Moulage Collection is a historically significant compilation of wax models, primarily created in the early 20th century. Housed at the University of Bonn's Department of Dermatology, the collection contains over 1.000 lifelike moulages depicting a wide range of skin diseases. Originally used for medical education and diagnostic training, these models serve as both a teaching tool and cultural heritage, highlighting intersections of art, science, and the history of medicine. The focus of my talk is the history of the collection and its exceptionally thorough documentation, which raises the question of what a responsible and fair approach to sensitive objects and data might look like. In addition, the talk highlights the potential of the collection to be used across disciplines — in research, teaching, and also in exhibition practice.

Hernandez Viquez, Rafael, Independent researcher and collector
The wax masks in Mexican popular traditions
Wax masks in folk dances likely appeared in the second half of the 19th century, although this material was already used in ancient Mexico. It was not until the French intervention that European techniques of waxwork were implemented in the creation of masks, as a way to add more realism to the personification of the invaders. The integration of foreign characters into popular and religious festivities took root in sectors of the population that have maintained them to this day. Recently, there has been innovation in characters and elements in the wax masks, as a way to generate an identity among the different populations.

Koka, Karen, Mayo Clinic
The Mayo Clinic Wax Model Collection: Updates on Research
The Mayo Clinic wax model collection was created by an in-house team of sculptors and artists from 1924 to 1983. They were used for display at medical meetings and in the Mayo Medical Museum to depict normal, pathological and traumatic conditions; dermatological diseases, physical anomalies, organs, anatomical structures and parts of the body, pathological specimens and farm accident cases. This presentation will update the status of the Mayo collection including recent studies of neurosurgical procedures that demonstrate a one-to-one relationship between published illustrations and models. It will also explore the role of the model making process in the early development of the field of maxillofacial prosthetics through the work of Mayo dentist and Museum Director, Dr. Arthur Bulbulian.

Leydi, Enrica
Antonio Serantoni: Life and Adventures of a Wax Modeller with His Creations
Antonio Serantoni (Milan, 17 January 1780 – Florence, 25 August 1837) was an Italian draftsman, engraver, and anatomical wax modeler. Today, he is best known for his engravings, particularly the anatomical plates in Paolo Mascagni’s Anatomia Universa (1823) and several botanical illustrations in Giorgio Gallesio’s Pomona Italiana (1817–1839). However, his life and, more significantly, his contributions to ceroplastics, particularly anatomical wax modelling, remain largely overlooked by scholarship. This paper seeks to reassess Serantoni’s career by drawing upon a broad range of historical sources, with particular attention to the neglected Biografia di Antonio Serantoni: disegnatore, incisore e lavoratore di cere anatomiche (1838) by Pietro Vannoni. Additionally, archival materials and contemporary journal articles, such as one from the Florentine Antologia Vieusseux (1832), will be examined to provide fresh insights into his biography and scientific endeavours.
On the one hand, a re-evaluation of Serantoni’s contributions to wax modelling provides a more nuanced understanding of the anatomical ceroplastic tradition in Florence, offering a local perspective. On the other hand, it sheds light on the circulation of these artefacts beyond Tuscany and Italy, emphasising the transnational network of patronage and knowledge exchange surrounding them. For example, records indicate that Serantoni travelled the peninsula with an Anatomical Venus featuring mechanical eyes, using it to raise funds for a second, reduced edition of Mascagni’s anatomical atlas. Furthermore, his wax works were commissioned not only within Italy but also internationally, including by institutions in America and Egypt.
In short, this paper will provide a novel perspective on Serantoni’s life, work, and network, offering insights into the epochal fascination for and international circulation of Italian anatomical waxworks in the early 19th century.

Lodolo, Elisa
Modelling the Human Body: Art, Science, and the Bolognese Ceroplastic School
Although Gaetano Giulio Zumbo (1656–1701) is often credited as the pioneer of anatomical wax modelling, it was in Bologna that ceroplastic production developed into a systematic and institutionalised practice. This transformation was initiated by Cardinal Prospero Lambertini (1675– 1758), later Pope Benedict XIV, who commissioned the artist Ercole Lelli (1702–1766) to create eight full- scale anatomical figures and supported the establishment of the Camera della Notomia at the Accademia delle Scienze. The Bolognese tradition experienced a period of growth during the eighteenth century with the contributions of two figures, Giovanni Manzolini (1700–1755) and Anna Morandi Manzolini (1714–1774), who merged scientific inquiry with artistic innovation, contributing to the expansion and enrichment of the Bolognese tradition. In the nineteenth century, this tradition was continued by craftsmen and anatomists including Giuseppe Astorri (1785–1852), Cesare Bettini (1801– 1855), Francesco Mondini (1786–1844), Luigi Calori (1807–1896), and Cesare Taruffi (1821–1902), especially in the domains of normal anatomy and teratology. Their work resulted in collections of anatomical waxes and illustrations, many of which are preserved in the “Luigi Cattaneo” Anatomical Wax Collection, housed within the University Museum Network at the Anatomy Centre in Bologna. The Bolognese school distinguished itself from other centres—such as Florence—through innovations, including the integration of real skeletal elements within wax models. This internal scaffolding enabled an exceptional level of anatomical precision, confirmed through high-resolution computed tomography, using Italy's sole research-oriented scanner. Beyond their educational and artistic significance, these models offer valuable data on individual anatomical variation and pathological conditions and continue to support research in human evolution and genetics. The integration of ceroplastic modelling with bone, visual documentation, and textual records illustrates a comprehensive method of anatomical preservation and education. The Bolognese experience exemplifies the enduring value of combining art and science to advance medical knowledge.

Loy Francesco, Museum of Clemente Susini's anatomical waxes, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy Scientific value of the anatomical characteristics in the Clemente Susini’s wax models at the University of Cagliari.
Francesco Antonio Boi (1767-1855), professor of Human Anatomy at the University of Cagliari from 1799, during his sabbatical leave in Florence, received the order to buy some wax anatomical models by the Viceroy of Sardinia, Carlo Felice of Savoy (1765-1831). The collection was created by Clemente Susini (1754-1814), head modeller at La Specola Museum managed by Felice Fontana (1730-1805). To carry out the commission of Cagliari, Susini was free from the influence of Fontana. The original tag with the signature of the artist and the date are shown in all the wooden tables of the 23 showcases. All the models were made between 1803 and 1805.
The models reflect not only the artistic maturity of Susini but also his strong cooperation with the Sardinian anatomist Boi, who performed the human dissections himself. In fact, the models reflect the great ability of Boi in anatomical preparation.
The aim of the Cagliari waxes was to give relevant scientific information to medical students. In the showcases, specific regional anatomy with the relationship among the organs, as case XXI shows. Some organs were also partially sectioned. Moreover, blood vessels and nerves are accurately represented. Waxes also illustrate the relationship between anatomy and function, as in the position of epiglottis in case X and XI. Moreover, a great scientific relevance is the presence of some individual anatomical variations, which is important, also today, for clinical anatomy. Currently, the great scientific value associated to the excellent artistic quality characterizes the relevance of the anatomical waxes at University of Cagliari.

Luppi, Anna, Academy of Fine Arts of Florence
Recasting a liquid memory with AI
An attempt to use AI for the reconstruction of a 3D image of the votive wax statues of SS. Annunziata in Florence, hanging from the ceiling of the Church, which totally disappeared around the early 18th century. We aim to train the AI by using the contributions from different sources: literary, iconographic and recent archival research. Born as a magical “avatar” of somebody who received the miracle, wax ex- votos bore the very traces of physical imprint of a society: facing the image of the Virgin, they encoded markers of social autonomous identity in a place of maximum exposure and authority. This magical power of wax effigies, dramatically decayed through the centuries, is somehow reborn in the first decades of the 20th century thanks to the contemporary artistic scene.
The challenge of AI for the rebirth of the wax portrait accurately embodies the liquid identity of today’s society

Miranda Razo, Mtro. Marco Antonio, Independent researcher and artisan master
From the continent to the content: the ceroplastic cabinet
This is the final proposal to exhibit, through artistic practice, a symbolic approach to the origin and development of ceroplastics, linked to the results of my research on the origin of ceroplastics.
The objective was to create an interdisciplinary installation by integrating various objects and archives that complement and concretize the theoretical research I conducted. This is intended to symbolize the journey undertaken by the ceroplastic technique through Europe and Italy to Spain; the enrichment it accumulated, the political and social conditions that drove its transmission from country to country, as well as the conditions and characteristics it acquired upon its arrival in Mexico, as well as its persistence to this day as Traditional Art

Nepi, Chiara
From 1988 to 2025 curator of the Botanical Collections at the Natural History Museum of the University of Florence, now part of the University Museum System. She has been responsible for the conservation, management and study of the collections, particularly the historical herbaria and those in the artistic field, such as botanical waxes and still life paintings, overseeing their restoration and loan to outside exhibitions. Individually or in collaboration with other researchers, she has studied the depiction of plants in art, their identification, and their meaning. She has curated (in collaboration with others) numerous exhibitions, both internal and external, and has worked on the new display of botanical wax models and paintings at the La Specola site of the Natural History Museum. She has published works on the history of botany and herbaria, as well as on the identification of plants in various works of art.
Art and Science. The new section dedicated to wax models of the La Specola Museum, in Florence
One year ago, the La Specola Museum (belonging to the Museum System of the University of Florence) has reopened after five years of renovation. Two new exhibition sections have been inaugurated, including: Art and Science. Educational models. Three out of seven rooms in this new section are almost entirely dedicated to the Florentine botanical waxes, consisting of over 170 models of plants and fruits and 37 tables of plant anatomy and pathology. These wax-works are now visible to the public for the first time in over a century, once again displayed alongside human and animal anatomical waxes. The Art and Science section, illustrating the meaning and the chronological evolution of naturalistic and anatomical models in Florence, starting from the 17th century, also features the artworks by Gaetano Giulio Zumbo, a sample of the anatomical waxes still exhibited in the historical rooms of the Museum, still life paintings of Bartolomeo Bimbi, decomposable anatomical models in wood (conceived by Felice Fontana) and papier-mâché (by L. T. J. Auzoux). Outside the new exhibition section, one additional room - formerly used for several years as the Museum’s ticket office - has been restored to its original purpose. It now once again houses an exhibition of 45 anatomical wax models of animals.

Ortega Rousset, Emiliano, Art & Design Faculty, FAD, UNAM
Ceroplastic sculpture, invention and survival
This artistic research deals with the wax portrait as an identity image in institutional discourses. The human face is key to self- and other-identification (Lacan, 2009; Levinas, 2002), acting as a code of social recognition. In cultural industries, wax portraits subtly reflect national identities (Esparza and Fernández, 1994). Wax museums reinforce culturally biased norms, prompting an artistic investigation into the inability of the portrait to define national identity. The study addresses aesthetic estrangement in wax art, the decolonial concept of Ixiptla (Carreón, 2014), and the materiality of waxy bodies.

Peña Martín, Ángel
And the candle bloomed. An approach to the study of curly and flower candles in Spain
This research constitutes a first approach to the history of curly and flower candles in Spain, based on copious documentation, rescuing from oblivion the names of waxmakers, their chronology and production, contributing, in this way, to the knowledge of the Spanish ceroplastics. It is a field of study that has hardly been approached by historiography, so a rigorous study is necessary that avoids the problematic topics of the scarce bibliographical references.
Through various sources of information, such as industrial and artistic yearbooks, industry exhibitions, newspaper articles and commercial advertisements, we recover the memory of 19th century Spanish wax factories that were dedicated to artistic ceroplastic and whose specialty was curly and flower candles. Curly candles, sometimes decorated with talcum powder and ribbons, and flower candles that, at least from the beginning of the 19th century, were used to light processions and different religious celebrations, such as First Communion, masses of birth, offerings to saints, the sumptuous decoration of altars and the Candlemas festivity. Even small colored curly candles adorned and illuminated the home nativity scenes. These candles were used by all social classes, from the common people to the Royal Family. In addition to written sources, the artistic works of Francisco Asorey González, Julio Vila Prades and María Blanchard, among others, bear witness to this. Nevertheless, the use for which the flower candles became more popular, and which is the one that still survives in a more generalized way, is the adornment of the canopy pasos of the images of the Virgin Mary in the processions of Holy Week in Andalusia, giving volume to the candelabra with bouquets of different types of flowers.

Peters, Martina
Martina Peters has been working as a conservator at the Josephinum – Medical History Museum Vienna since 2013. She studied Conservation and Restoration at the University of Applied Arts Vienna, with a specialization in objects made of wax. At the Josephinum, she is primarily responsible for the care of anatomical models, moulages, and other wax artefacts. Her work encompasses preventive conservation, the conservation and restoration of objects, as well as their handling in the context of in-house exhibitions and outgoing loans. Her research focuses on the Florentine anatomical wax model collection held at the Josephinum.
The 2019–2022 Renovation of the Josephinum and its Anatomical Wax Model Collection
The Josephinum, one of Vienna’s few well-preserved neoclassical monuments, underwent a major interior renovation between 2019 and 2022. Founded in 1785 by Emperor Joseph II as a medico-surgical military academy, the institution houses an exceptional collection of 18th-century anatomical wax models—originally produced in Florence at La Specola under the direction of Felice Fontana, with key contributions from anatomist Paolo Mascagni and master modeler Clemente Susini. These scientifically accurate and artistically refined models, many still displayed in their original walnut display cases, represent a unique legacy of Enlightenment-era medical education.
The primary objective of the 2019–2022 renovation was the structural and technical modernization of the historic building. However, from a curatorial perspective, the project also offered an unprecedented opportunity to reconfigure the presentation of the wax model collection in line with its original 18th-century arrangement. In preparation for the renovation, a comprehensive inventory and condition assessment of the collection was undertaken. Given the fragility and material sensitivity of the wax models, each object was evaluated and categorized as stable, sensitive, or damaged. Based on these findings, objects were relocated within the building with corresponding protective measures in place.
In parallel, a significant portion of the models underwent conservation treatment—not only to prepare them for transport during the renovation, but also to ensure their long-term stability for future exhibition. Conservation efforts addressed both structural vulnerabilities and surface cleaning, and were carried out in accordance with international standards for the care of historical scientific objects. This process is ongoing and continues to play a critical role in the preservation of the collection.
To protect the historical models from vibrations, dust, and other risks associated with construction work, the renovation was carried out in two phases. During the first phase, two-thirds of the building were under construction, while the entire collection was temporarily relocated to the southern wing of the Josephinum. Following completion of structural works, the anatomical models were reinstalled in the historically documented rooms of the first floor, while the obstetrical collection remained in the adjacent space where it had been located since the 1960s. Today, the restored Josephinum not only reflects the architectural ideals of the Enlightenment but also reaffirms its role as a vital institution for the preservation, study, and public interpretation of early medical science.

Ramos Rocha, Mariblanca, Dr., Head of the Department of History and Philosophy at the Faculty of Medicine
Anatomical Models for Teaching in the Dermatology Chair in the XIX Century.
Medical surgeon from Universidad Anáhuac. Specialized in Psychiatry at UNAM/Hospital Español. Holds a Master’s degree in Sciences with a focus on Clinical Psychiatry from UNAM/National Institute of Psychiatry. She holds a Doctorate in Sciences with a specialization in Bioethics from the Master’s and Doctorate Program in Medical, Dental, and Health Sciences at UNAM. She is a full-time Professor A in the Department of History and Philosophy of Medicine at the Faculty of Medicine, UNAM. A member of various medical societies, including the New York Academy of Science, International Society for the History of Medicine, Mexican Society for the History of Medicine, and the Pan-American Academy of the History of Medicine. She is the author of multiple book chapters and articles in indexed journals.

Rodríguez, Martha Eugenia, Dr. Department of History and Philosophy of Medicine
XIX-century medicine, the construction of the body.
She studied her Bachelor's degree, Master's degree, and Ph.D. in History at the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters at UNAM. She was a scholarship recipient at the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine in London, England. She is a full professor C and the head of the Department of History and Philosophy of Medicine at the Faculty of Medicine. She teaches both undergraduate and graduate courses. She was the president of the Mexican Society of History and Philosophy of Medicine. She is a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) and belongs to the National Academy of Medicine, the Mexican Academy of Surgery, the Mexican Academy of Sciences, and the Mexican National Academy of Bioethics. Her research focuses on medicine during the colonial period and the 19th century.

Rojas Navarrete, Rosa María, Seminario Iberoamericano de las Artesania
"Wax Craft in Guanajuato: History and Contemporary Practice"
Wax craft in Guanajuato has become an art form based on a craft technique that dates back more than 300 years. It was introduced by Augustinian and Franciscan friars who arrived as part of the Spanish conquest. It is considered an intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO. These are cultural practices of the communities in the state that, while preserving pre-Hispanic roots, became intertwined with ritual celebrations and the Catholic religion. Today, it is recognized as national cultural heritage. The intangible cultural heritage of wax craft includes oral traditions, stories, and knowledge passed down from generation to generation. The social customs and festive acts of patron saint celebrations, funeral rites, societal and religious rituals are interwoven with knowledge of artisanal crafts. The making of wax figures for ceremonies, funeral offerings, and patron saint festivities continues to this day, as part of Day of the Dead altars and other expressions linked to specific rituals. Wax craft speaks to the Mexican cultural identity, as an expression of both identity and religious devotion, from rural villages and small towns to large cathedrals. It is considered a cultural legacy at risk of disappearing, with origins that date back to 1521, and includes artisanal techniques such as ceras escamadas, which derive from cera rizada, as a living expression of the religious culture shared by both countries.

Sánchez, Gabino, Dr., Full-time Professor in the Department of History and Philosophy of Medicine
Anatomical Models and Medical Education at the National School of Medicine of Mexico.
He holds a Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctorate in History from the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters at UNAM. Currently, he is a Professor at the Faculty of Medicine, UNAM, and President of the Mexican Society for the History and Philosophy of Medicine. He teaches History and Philosophy of Medicine in the Department of History and Philosophy at the Faculty of Medicine and is a Graduate Professor of Mexican Medical History in the Master's and Doctoral Program in Medical, Dental, and Health Sciences. He has been the primary advisor for two undergraduate students, seven master's students, and is currently supervising a doctoral thesis in the field of medical humanities. He is the author of the following books. Development of Scientific Medicine, Government of the State of Mexico, Pinacoteca 2000, Biblioteca Mexiquense del Bicentenario, 2009. History of the National Medical Institute of Mexico 1888-1915, Mexico, UNAM, Faculty of Medicine, 2019. The Anatomical Museum of the National School of Medicine 1870-1910, Mexico, UNAM, Faculty of Medicine, 2019. He has authored 15 scientific articles, 25 book chapters, and over 50 dissemination articles in the field of medical humanities. In 2018, the National Academy of Medicine of Mexico awarded him the "Dr. Germán Somolinos D’Ardois" Prize in recognition of his professional career and lifelong dedication to the study and dissemination of the history of medicine.

Sellars Nina, Independent artist
Apprehension: the digital animation of Tramond
This paper examines the creation of artistic digital iterations of select anatomical waxworks produced by the Parisian atelier Maison Tramond, held in the collection of the Harry Brookes Allen Museum of Anatomy and Pathology at the Faculty of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, Australia. In addition to contextualising the historical and pedagogical significance of these specimens to the faculty, the study documents the international collaboration that enabled their contemporary digital reimagining. Artists, curators, photographers and 3D animators based in Melbourne and Mexico City worked together for this interdisciplinary project. One of the resulting digital animations, Apprehension, was featured in the exhibition, Anatomy & Beyond, presented for the 2021 opening of the new Riga Stradins University Museum of Anatomy, Latvia.

Toni, Roberto, Adjunct Professor of Medicine, Department of Medicine Division Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
The anatomical clinical legacy of Lorenzo Tenchini and his unique anatomical collection at the University of Parma
Research Associate, National Research Council (CNR) - ISSMC, Faenza, Italy, Scientific Consultant, RIV-Capital Inc. Luxembourg and Dubai (UAE), and Senior Founder, Laboratory of Regenerative Morphology and Bioartificial Structures, Department of Medicine and Surgery, and Museum and Historical Library of Biomedicine (BIOMED), University of Parma, Parma, Italy. Pre-doctoral Fellow at the Cardiothoracic Institute of the University of London (UK) and Department of Biochemistry - Edgenossiche Technische Hochschule (ETH) of Zurich (CH), he obtained his MD degree and Subspecialty Board in Internal Medicine at the University of Bologna, and Subspecialty Board of Endocrinology at the University of Modena, Italy. Post-doctoral Fellow at the Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet of Stockholm (Sweden), in 1987 he was awarded an NIH-International Fogarty Fellowship PhD in Endocrinology at the Endocrinology Division - New England Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA, where he remained up to 1989. From 2000 to 2023 he held the appointment of Professor of Human Anatomy and Scientific Director of BIOMED at the University of Parma, Italy; here, in 2017 he promoted the first international exposition of the historical collection of masks and anatomical preparations by the nineteenth-century anatomist and psychiatrist, Lorenzo Tenchini who was forerunner of the modern concepts of clinical neuroanatomy based on the principle of morpho-functional unity, and its application to the psychic deviance. In collaboration with his original research group at the University of Parma, Roberto Toni is currently engaged in a number of research topics in molecular endocrinology, regenerative medicine of endocrine and neuroendocrine structures, bioartificial organ engineering, and mechanisms regulating the hypothalamic-pituitary axis in mammals and man including the role of endocrine disrupting chemicals. As a clinician and researcher, attention is currently paid to emerging fields in health care and its monitoring through innovative informatic technologies like smart spaces, digital twins, and the use of humanoid robots for collaborative support to the human action during motor rehabilitation, and in extreme survival conditions like those of explorers in Polar bases and astronauts during Space missions. Member of the Academy of Sciences of Bologna and Accademia Peloritana dei Pericolanti of Messina, Italy he has served in the Editorial and Review Boards of national and international scientific journals of the biomedical and endocrine/metabolic fields and, in collaboration with a number of national and international Academic and Research Institutions he is actively working on innovative symbolic languages for inferential clinical reasoning based on anatomical knowledge. Instrumental to these studies, the Tenchini’s masks and anatomical collection at Parma University provide a valuable source of data for training humanoid robots with computer vision to recognize anatomical parts and face physionomics for first aid intervention to human subjects.

Viesca Treviño, Carlos, Dr., Researcher in the Department of History and Philosophy of the Faculty of Medicine
The Josephinum hospital of Vienna.
He is a medical surgeon from the Faculty of Medicine at UNAM, a general surgeon, and holds a Doctorate in Sciences with a specialization in the History of Science from UAM. He is a full-time Professor C in the Department of History and Philosophy of Medicine at the Faculty of Medicine, UNAM. He served as head of this department from 1983 to 2012.
Member of the National System of Researchers from 1984 to 2020. He is also a member of several prestigious academies, including the National Academy of Medicine, the Mexican Academy of Surgery, the Mexican Academy of Sciences, the International Academy of Philosophy of Science (AIaPS), and the Mexican Society of History and Philosophy of Medicine.
Currently, he serves as the President of the International Society for the History of Medicine and Honorary President of the Pan-American Academy of the History of Medicine. He is the author and editor of 51 books, has contributed to over 100 book chapters, and has published nearly 200 articles in national and international journals.

Zarzoso, Alfons, and Benitez, Nuria
Institución Milà i Fontanals de Investigación en Humanidades, CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
The waxes of the Museo Anatómico de Sanidad Militar of Madrid. An evanescent story.
On February 7, 1889 the Military Hospital of Madrid suffered a devastating fire, and practically the entire contents of the Anatomical Museum of Military Health, which consisted of about 1,450 pieces, were destroyed. In this work we focus on the artist by training and military professional Enrique Zofio Dávila (1835-1915). Thanks to his particular skill in the handling of wax, Zofio enjoyed in his time a considerable artistic reputation. From 1864 he worked as a wax-sculptor at the Museo Anatómico de Sanidad Militar in Madrid, directed by Cesáreo Fernández Losada. And, in turn, from 1879 he was hired by the Diputación Provincial de Madrid to work as a sculptor under the orders of the physician José Eugenio Olavide at the Hospital de San Juan de Dios. According to the catalogue of the Museo Anatómico de Sanidad Militar, elaborated by the officer N. Amorós and published in Madrid in 1884, at least 150 pieces of that collection were wax models worked by Zofio. The collection grew in the following five years when, in 1889, the museum was engulfed by the flames that devastated the Military Hospital. Only a few pieces were recovered, and they travelled around the city until they were located in the Military Hospital of Carabanchel in 1901, where Zofio was in charge of the collection until his retirement in 1911, restoring 70 models that had been damaged and creating new ones. In 1901 Olavide died. Until that year, Zofio had been deeply involved in the production of dermatological waxes in the Hospital de San Juan de Dios, whose moulds and models -about 400 pieces- can be seen today in the Olavide Museum -an institution now threatened by closure, again endangering the survival of the collection. In this paper we are interested in showing the circulation of Zofio's waxes in the anatomical market of Madrid.

Zúñiga, Miguel Otero, Dr., Departamento de Historia y Filosofía de la Medicina, Facultad de Medicina UNAM
"The Wax and the Sinister"
Works born from wax modeling possess the power to unsettle the viewer and awaken a deep emotional response. It is not merely molded material; it is the threshold between the real and the fantastic, between life and death. Wax figures, with their eerie realism, seem to lurk from the darkest corner of the territory described by Masahiro Mori as the “uncanny valley,” where the almost human evokes equal parts fascination and repulsion. Trapped in the ambiguity of wax art, the audience cannot help but wonder if those glassy eyes hide a flicker of consciousness, if the translucent skin somehow encloses a trapped soul.
Wax, due to its malleability and its ability to incorporate organic materials, becomes the perfect medium for the sinister. Freud spoke of the double, the doppelgänger, as a source of unease: wax figures, nearly perfect replicas, evoke the suspicion that life and death dangerously brush against each other on their surfaces. It is no coincidence that literature and art have turned to them to represent deception, madness, and supernatural horrors: from dolls to funerary effigies, wax is the mirror where the fantastic and the macabre reflect.
In this context, the sinister is not just a fleeting sensation but the echo of a deeper paradox: wax modeling, through its extreme realism, can deceive the senses and disturb the mind. Thus, wax and the sinister intertwine in a play of appearances, where each figure is an open threshold to the unknown, and the visitor, upon crossing it, is marked by the suspicion that the inanimate may awaken at any moment.

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